Biochem Summary

Bonds are created when electrons are shared or exchanged between atoms

• They are classified as intermolecular or intramolecular
• They are further divided into dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonds (a type of dipole-dipole), london dispersion force, ionic bonds, covalent bonds etc

Water has many unique properties owing to its polarity and hydrogen bonds, making it essential to life

Isomers are molecules with the same chemical formula but different structural arrangements

• Are divided into structural, geometric and optical (enantiomer) isomers
• A few key isomers are glucose, galactose and fructose

Organic chemistry

• Must be made with carbon atoms, although they typically contain other molecules
• Has a few key properties - such as forming chain or ring structures
  • These properties can be determined by functional groups

Macromolecules are fundamental organic molecules essential for life

• Metabolism - The reactions of essential macromolecules is divided into two major categories and types:
  • Anabolism - which with water is dehydration synthesis
  • Catabolism - which with water is hydrolysis
  • These reactions are determined through enzymes and polarity
• These macromolecules are typically arranged in monomers and polymers

Carbohydrate - Also known as sugars, Essential Macromolecule, general formula - ($C_x(H_{2}O{)}_y$ )

• Provides numerous essential functions for biological systems
• Is categorized into three types, based on simple or complex carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates - Monomer-carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides - Simple sugars used for energy
  • There are three essential monosaccharide monomers
  • In linear structure, are classified as aldose or ketose sugars
  • Reaction of carboxyl-hydroxyl groups forms ring structures
• Saccharide reactions - Hydrolysis reactions of two hydroxyl groups form dissacharides and polysaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds
  • Anomeric carbon - Carbonyl group determines the location
    • Can be classified as alpha or beta bonds
    • Reducing sugars - if the hydroxyl group is ready to form a glycosidic bond
• Disaccharide -some can be formed by a few key reactions

Complex carbohydrates - Also known as polysaccharides, are polymer-carbohydrates

• A few key polysaccharide molecules:
  • Glycogen - made of a(1,4) or a(1,6) glycosidic bonds forming a branched stucture
  • Amylose - Unbranched --- Similar to Glycogen minus the a(1,6) bond
  • Amylopectin - Branched ---- Less frequent a(1,6) bond frequencies than glycogen
  • Cellulose - made of b(1,4) glycosidic bonds forming a unbranched structure
  • Chitin - glucose like monomers forming a strong "net" structure

Lipids - insoluble non-polar macromolecule produced by enzymes

• Supports important biological functions
• Fatty acids are a carboxylic acid containing a long hydrocarbon "tail"
  • Can be divided into saturated, unsaturated and trans-unsaturated fats
• Fats (triglyceride) --- Made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
  • Animal vs Plant Fats - Differ in saturation
• Phospholipids --- made of glycerol, 2 fatty acids and polar phosphate group
  • Ampipathic - Dual solubility properties
  • Cell membrane from a bilayer - trapping fats
• Steroids --- typically found in a 3 hexagonal ring 1 pentagon structure

Nucleic Acids - Large Macrmolecules composed of nucleotides

• Important properties in genetics, protein syntehsis and ATP
• Important molecules include Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucliec Acid (RNA)
  • These molecules have different properties
• Nucleotides --- Essential monomer unit for DNA and RNA
  • Made of 3 major parts;
  • DNA/RNA differ in the nitrogenous bases
  • Purine - double ringed AG
  • Pyrimidine - single ringed CTU